What is the skeletal system

Anatomy: Is the study of the structure of the body.

Skeletal System

Osteology is the branch of anatomy that describes the structure & functions of the human skeletal system. the adult human skeletal system is composed of 206 bones, numerous ligaments & cartilage, the skeleton is the bony framework that gives shape of the body by making joints with each other provides attachment of the muscles & tendons & tendons & protects the vital organs from external injury.

Skeleton: Bone & cartilaginous framework of the body.

Bone: Are the strong & hardly structure. Most of the bones are hollow & contains bone marrow, which produces red blood cells & white blood cells also a great reservoir of calcium ions.

Ligament – a white fibrous connective tissue that links two bones together at a joint.

cartilage - a dense connective tissue composed of a matrix produced by cells called chondroblasts, embedded in the matrix as chondrocytes, white or gray color.

Tendon – a fibrous connective tissue that attach a muscle to a bone.

Joint – It may be defined as union of two or more bones or cartilages in a particular point of capsule. Joints are of three types –

1. Fibrous joints – Fixed joints, e.g. joints of skull bones.
2. Cartilaginous joints – Slightly movable joints, e.g. intervertebral joints.
3. Synovial Joints – Freely movable joints, e.g. elbow joints.

Organs of Skeletal System: Human skeleton consists of 206 bones –

1. Skull – 29 (facial – 14 Cranial – 14, Hyoid – 1)
2. Vertebrae – 26 {Cervical-7, Thoracic- 12, Lumberus-5, Sacrum-1(5), Coccyx-1(5),Coccyx-1(4)}
3. Upper limbs – 26 {Clavicle-1,Scapula-1, Humerus-1,Ulna-1, Radius-1,Carpal-8,Metacarpals-5,Phalanges-14)
4. Lower limbs – (Hipbone-1,Femur-1,Tibia-1,Fibula-1,Patella-1,Tarsal-7,Metatarsal-5,Phalanges-14)\
5. Sternum – 1
6. Ribs – 24

Common Disorders:

1. Pain & Inflammation _ Redness, Temperature, Swelling, Loss of function.
2. Fracture – a complete or incomplete structure breaks or crack in the normal Continuity of a bone.
3. dislocation – total disruption of joint.
4. Sprain – Injury to ligaments or joint capsule.
5. Tendonitis – Inflammation of tendon.
6. Osteomylitis – Infection of tissue of bone as well as bone marrow.
7. Spondylitis – Inflammation involving the vertebral column.
8. Osteoporosis – A state of decreased bone mass.
9. Arthritis – Inflammation of joint, Osteoarthritis (inflammation of joint surface), arthritis (destructive changes insynovial membrane)

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What is the Muscular System

Myology is the branch of anatomy, which describes the muscular system, its components, structure & functions. it forms the flesh of the flesh of the body, which fives the body strength & helps for locomootion (movement).

The muscular system functions in close relation with the skeletal system & sometime regarded as one system called musculoskeletal system.

Muscles are composed of muscle fibers & grossly of three types:

1, Smoth muscles (Visceral muscle) are involuntary, present in the wall of GIT, blood vessel & other internal organs that are innervated by autonomic nervous system.

2, Cardiac muscle or involuntary, present in the heart only. it has a special property that it can produce its own impulses through SA & AV nodes & also innevated by autonomic nervous system.

3, Skeletal muscle or striated muscles are voluntary, present in relation with skeleton, which give the fleshy appearance of the body &  are innervated by somatic nerve.The body has about 656 skeletal muscle (i.e. muscles attached to skeleton) Muscles account for about 42% of weight in males & 36% in females.

Some Common Disease
1, myositis – is inflammation of muscles.
2, Muscular atrophy – is muscle degeneration leading to its becoming smaller & weaker.

Back pain, Dental pain,

Postoperative pain,

Pharyngotonsilitis pain,

Dysmenorrhoea, Frozen Shoulder (chronic pain ful stiffness), Otitis, etc.

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Organs of Digestive System

Digestion: it is a physiological process by which complex complex food particles are broken down into simple form for absorption & subsequent utilization.

Organs of Digestive System:

Gastrointestinal Tract

1, Oral Cavity (Mouth)
2, Oropharynx

3, Esophagus
4, Stomach
5, Small Intestine

a)      Duodenum

b)      Jejunum

c)      Ileum

6, Large Intestine –

a. Caecum                             b. Ascending Colon

c. Transverse Colon                d. Descending Colon

e. Sigmoid Colon                    f. Rectum,

g. Anal Canal                         h. Anus.

.

Accessory Organ

1, Teeth
2, Tongue
3, Salivary gland
4, Pancreas
5, Liver
6, Gallbladder

Gastrointestinal Gland

1, Salivary gland
2, Pancreas
3, Liver
4, Gallbladder

Functions of Digestive System:

1, Ingestion – The process by which food is taken into the Digestive tract.
2, Digestion – the process in which ingested food is broken down in the Digestive tract into 

                      a form that can be  absorbed & assimilated by the tissue of the body.
3, Absorption – the uptake of fluids by the tissues of the body.
4, Excretion – the elimination of waste products from the body.

Digestion Process:

Food enters into the GIT (Gastro-intestinal tract); different types of enzymes are secreted from various parts of the GI tract. These enzymes convert various food materials into small units for absorption into blood.

The digestive end products of different types of food

Food	Responsible Enzyme	Digestive end products
Carbohydrates	Amylase, Maltase, Sucrase	Gulcose, Fructose, Galactose
Proteins	Pepsin, Trypsin	Amino acids
Fat	Lipase	Fattu acids & Glycerol

Some common GI problems:
1, Dyspepsia (Indigestion); Dyspepsia is definedd as pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen may be associated with nausea,  vomiting, fullness, bloating & heartburn.

2, Nausea  and Vomiting: Disagreeable sensation of sickness wanting to vomit;

3, Anorexia : Loss of appetite ;

4, Constipation ; Infrequent passage of hard stool with difficult and painful defecation .

5, Diarrhoea: An increased stool frequency and loose watery stools ;

6, Stomatitis: Inflammation of the buccal mucous membrane.

7, Glossitis: Inflammation of the tongue.

8, Pyrrhoea: Inflammation of the gum.

9, Peptic Ulcer; Gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer is known as peptic ulcer.

10, Gastric ulcer – ulcer within the inner wall (mucus membrane) of the Stomach.

11, Duodenal ulcer – ulcer within the duodenum.

Ulcer: a break in the skin or in the mucous membrane lining to GI tract that fails to heal & is often accompanied by inflammation.

12, Intestinal Amoebiasis: It is an infectious disease by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica characterized by loose or semi formed stools with abdominal cramps.

13, Bacillary Dysentery/Shigellosis: A common disease caused by Shigella characterized by acute inflammation, diarrhea with blood & mucous in the stool.

14, Jaundice: Increased bilirubin concentration in the body fluid.

15, Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver.

16, Hepatic Amoebiasis: Liver infection by amoeba.

17, Cirrhosis: Hepatic cellular damage.

18, Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder.

19, Enteric fever: Intestinal fever caused by salmonella typhae / S. Paratyphae.

20, Appendicitis: Inflammation of appendix.

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The Urinary System

Excretion: It is a process by which the unwanted & end product of our body are removed from the body.
Excretory System includes: Urinary system, The Bowels, The skin, the Lungs, Saliva, Breast milk.

Urinary system: is the major excretory system. the Organs of Urinary System are –
1, Two Kidnneys- the major excretory organ.
2, Two Ureter- the tube which collect urine from kidney to Urinary Bladder.
3, One Urinary Bladder- the bladder which acts as a reservoir of urine.
4, Urethra- the small tube which expel urine from body to outside.

Urination Process: Urine is collected from Kidney to urinary bladder through ureter. Then expelled out by urethra.


Some common diseases of Urinary System:
1, Urethritis – Inflammation of urethra.
2, Cystitis – Inflammation of urinary bladder.
3, Pyelonephritis – Inflammation of pelvic & nephron.
4, Nephritis – Inflammarion of nephron (Kidney).
5, Renal failure – Total failure of the Kidney.

Nephron: is the structural & functional unit of kidney. It acts as a filter for blood.

Parts of Nephron: Each nephron consists of two parts –

1, Glomerulus – The network of blood capillaries contained within the Bowman’s capsule of nephron.

2, Renal tubule: parts of renal tubule are –
a, Bowmen’s Capsule
b, Proximal tubule
c, Loop of Henle
e, Distal tubule
f, Collecting t6ubule (duct)

 Loop of Henle

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Respiratory System

Respiration: It is the process by which oxygen ( O2 ) is carried from the atmosphere to the tissue for oxidation & carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) formed in the tissue is expired out. The system involved in this process is called Respiratory system.
Organs of Respiratory system: It is divided into two parts.

Upper Respiratory Tract
1, Nasal cavity
2, Pharynx
3, Larynx
4, Trachea

Lower Respiratory Tract
1, Lungs
2, Bronchi
3, Bronchiole
4, Alveolar duct
5, Alveoli

Special Organs
1, Tonsils
2, Sinus
3, Ear

Sinus – an air cavity within the bones of Skull (or face).

Tonsil – a mass of lymphoid tissue on either side of the back of mouth. It protects

infection.

Lymphoid tissue – responsible for the production of lymphocytes ( a variety of WBC 0 & antibody.

Antibody – a special kind of blood protein that is synthesized in lymphoid tissue to protect infection.

Oxidation - the process of a substance combining with oxygen.

Common Diseases of Respiratory Tract:

1, Pneumonia – Chracterized by inflammatory changes in the lung parenchyma due to bacterial infections.

2, CAP ( Community Acquired Pneumonia ) : Pneumonia acquired from the community.

3, Nosocomial Pneumonia: Pneumonia acquired from the hospital.

4, Common Cold (Viral Rhinitis): Non – specific inflammatory symptoms characterized by headache, nasal congestion, watery rhinorrhoea, sneezing & sore throat.

5, Tonsillitis – Inflammation of tonsils.

6, Sinusitis – Inflammation of sinus.

7, Pharyngitis – Inflammation of pharynx.

8, Laryngitis – Inflammation of larynx.

9, Trachitis – Inflammation of trachea.

10, Bronchitis – Inflammation of bronchi

11, Bronchiolitis – Inflammation of bronchiole.

12, Bronchiolitis – Inflammation o bronchiole.

13, Alveolitis – Inflammation of alveolus.

14, Pleurisy – Inflammation of pleura ( thin outer layer of lungs).

15, COPD ( Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ) – Characterized by airflow obstruction may be associated with chronic bronchitis.

16, Asthma – Characterized by breathlessness, chest tightness & wheezing.

17, Otitis media – Infection of middle ear, Otitis externa – Infection of outer ear.

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