Type of Cell

Cell is the structural & functional unit of living organism.

Type of cell:

On the basis of the structure of nucleus cell is of two types –

1. Prokaryotic cell (e.g Bacteria)
2. Eukaryotic cell (e.g Human cell)

On the basis of physiological function cell is of two types -

1. Somatic cell (Body cell)
2. Sex cell (Reproductive cell)

Function of a cell: 

1. Function & assimilation – the process by which food substances are taken into the cells of the body after they have been digested & absorbed.

2. Growth & repair – Development & regeneration of organs.

3. Metabolism – the sum of all the chemical & physical changes that takes place within the body.

4. Respiration – the process of gaseous exchange.

5. Excretion - elimination of wastes product from the body.

6. Irritability & conductivity – Response to stimuli & communication with other cell.

Organelles (components) of cell:

A cell consists of –

1. Cell membrane – a semi-permeable membrane covering protoplasm. It protect the cell organelles.

2. protoplasm – it consist of Cytoplasm & Nucleus.

3. Cytoplasm – Except nucleus the rest of cell body is called Cytoplasm.

Organelles of Cytoplasm :

1. It consist of-
2. mitochondria: Rod-lide structure & is called power house of cell. Energy stored as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is a system of interconnecting membrane bound channels within the cytoplasm. Participate in protein synthesis.
4. Golgy body : Canal – like structure that helps in synthesis of carbohydrate cell membrane.
5. Lysosome:  Are tiny granules composed of RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) (65% & Protein (35%). It consists of subunits: Large – 50s & Smaller – 30s. Synthesize cytoplasmic protein.

Nucleus:

Centrally located a round mass is called nucleus. It is separated from cytoplasm gy a nuclear membrane. It contains 46 chromosomes of which 23 from mother & 23 from father that contain genes. Genes are composed of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid – double helix structure of (chromosomes).

Chromosome:

There is some chromatin threads present in
the nucleus, called chromosome.
Chromosomes are the vital to the
everyday activities of the cell &
responsible for determining the hereditary
characteristics of the human body.

Functions of Nucleus:

1. It produces Ribosome.
2. Synthesize RNA & protein.
3. It inherits the character to the offspring through genes.
4. It influences growth & initiates divisions or reproduction of cell.

Parts of nucleus

1. Nuclear membrane
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Nucleolus
4. Nuclear reticulum or chromatin.

Structure of a cell

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Posted in: about cells,cell,cell structure,cells structure and function,types of cell,what is a human cell

Types of Tissue

Collection of cell having similar structure & performing a common physiological function is called tissue.

Types of Tissue:

1. Epithelial tissue: Covering the external & internal body surfaces. e.g. – Skin, internal covering of GIT.
2. Connective tissue: Connects different structures of the body & also helps to provide framework of the body. e.g. – Blood, Bones.
3. Muscular tissue;: Muscular tissues make up the major part of the soft tissues of the body & by means of its contraction power helps in locomotion. e.g. – Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle.
4. Nervous tissue: Nervous tissue is highly specialized tissue which controls & co-ordinates the body functions by forming nervous system. e.g – Neuralgia, White matter, Grey matter.

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Posted in: connective tissu,epithelial tissues,muscle tissue,nervous system,tissues,types of tissue,what is physiological

The Human Ear

The ear is the organ of hearing & also plays an important part in the maintenance of balance. It has three parts- outer, middle & inner. The outer ear consists of ear canal & eardrum. The middle ear consists of ear ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes), Eustachian tube & Cavity. The inner ear consist of semicircular canals, fenestra ovalis, vestibule cochlear nerve, fenestra rotunda &  cochlea.

The Ear

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Posted in: anatomy ear,ear diagram,hearing,parts of the ear,the ear

The Human Eye

The eye is the organ of sight & is situated in the orbit which protects it from injury. The eye is spherical in shape & embedded in fat. it has three coats – the outer fibrous coat, the middle vascular coat & the inner nervous coat. the outer coat consist of Sclera, Conjunctiva & Cornea. the middle coat consist Choroid, Cilliary body & Iris. The inner coat is Retina.

Human Eye

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Posted in: anatomy of the eye,eye,eye functions,for eyes,picture of eye

The Human Skin

The skin is one of the human body’s largest organs. Skin contains sensory devices that monitor the external environment. The nerves in skin receive the stimuli that are then interpreted by the brain as touch, heat, & cold.

Skin is composed of three layers:

1. Epidermis -               the outer layer.

2. Dermis -                   the middle layer.

3. Subcutaneous -         the inner layer.
 

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Posted in: epidermis skin,layers of skin,skin,skin diagram,what are skin cells

The Human Heart

The heart is a conical, hollow muscular organ. It is a central pumping station. I t pumps blood to all parts of the body. It is covered with a thin cover – Pericardium.

Features:

Four chambers

1. Left atrium
2. Right atrium
3. Left ventricle &
4. RIght ventricle

Four valves

1. Pulmonary,
2. Tricuspid,
3. Mitral&
4. Aortic valves.

Three layers

1. Epicardium (outer)
2. Myocardium (middle) &
3. Endocardium (inner)

 

Interior View of the HEART

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Posted in: about human heart,anatomy of heart,diagram of the heart,human heart pictures,what is heart disease,where is the human heart

Organ

Definition

Collection of tissues united together to perform a particular function is called organ.

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Posted in: cell,eye,human body,human organs,skin,tissues

11 System of the Human body

When a number of organs work together in the body to perform a general function the then it is called a system.

Organ work in a coordinated way as a member of the system.

There are 11 Systems of the Human body.

1. Skeletal System : Functions – Protection/Support.

                              Organs - All bones of the body.

2. Muscular System : Functions - Movement

                               Organs - Muscles of the limbs & Trunks.

3. Digestive System : Function - Food processing.

                                Organs- GIT, GIG

4. Urinary System : Function- Excretion.

                              Organs- Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder & Urethra.

5. Respiratory System : Function- Breathing.

                                    Organs- Lungs, Trachea, Bronchi &
                                    Bronchioles.

6. Circulatory System : Function - Transport.

                                    Organs- Heart, Blood & Blood Vessels.

7. Nervous System : Function - Response to stimuli.

                               Organs - Brain, Spinal cord & Nerves.

8. Limbic System : Function - Intelligence, Emotion

                             Organs - Thalamus, Basal ganglia & Amygdale.

9. Endocrine System : Function - Growth & Development.

                                  Organs - All ductless glands.

10. Reproductive System : Function - Reproduction.

                                         Organs - All sense organs of Male &
                                         Female.

11. Lymphatic System : Function- Defense.

                                     Organs - Lymph node, Lymph vessel, Lymph
                                     glands.

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Posted in: about human body systems,body system of human body,human body system,the system of the human body

What is Microbiology

Microbiology: is the study of living organism of microscopic size (Microorganisms).

Microorganisms:

Microorganisms are minute living body not perceptible to the naked eye, e.g. bacteria

Classification of microorganisms:

microbiology consists of five groups of organisms-

1. Bacteria

2. Virus

3. Protozoa

4. Algae

5. Fungi

Living cells are divided into two major types –

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, on the basis of their genetic organization.

Prokaryotes:

1. In prokaryotes the DNA is free in the cytoplasm.

2. Prokaryotic cell do not contain membrance–bound organelles such as mitochondria or chloroplasts, as eukaryotes do.

3. Bacteria (including the blue green “algae”) are prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes: Definite nucleus in the cell i.e. nucleus surrounded by membrane.

1. Higher organisms together with microorganisms such as fungi, algae and protozoa are eukaryotes.

2. In eukaryotes the genetic information is separated from the rest of the cell in a membrane bound compartment – the nucleus.

3. Eukaryotic cells contain several membrane – bound organelles and membrane systems.

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Posted in: bacteria,classification of microorganisms,microorganisms,prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Bacteriology

Bacteriology – Science that deals with Bacteria.

Bacteriology - A unicellular organisms without a true nucleus.

Mycoplasmas are bacteria that have no cell wall and therefore have no definite shape.

Internal Structure

Bacteria have a very simple internal structure, and no membrane-bound organelles.

Nucleoid: DNA in the bacterial cell is generally confined to this central region. Though it isn’t bounded by a membrane, it is visibly distinct (by transmission microscopy) from the rest of the cell interior.

DNA- Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid is single long circular molecule. It contains all genetic information for the structure & function of a bacterium under its optimum conditions.

Ribosome

Ribosome gives the cytoplasm of bacteria a granular appearance in electron micrographs. It is important in translating the genetic massage in messenger RNA ( Ribo Nucleic Acid) into the production of peptide sequences (proteins). It is responsible for protein synthesis.

Storage Granules

Nutrients and reserves may be stored in the cytoplasm in the form of glycogen, lipids, polyphosphate, or in some cases, sulfur or nitrogen.

Endospore

Some bacteria, like clostridium botulinum, form spores that are highly resistant to drought, high temperature and other environmental hazards. Once the hazard is removed, the spore germinates to create a new population.

Capsule

This layer of polysaccharide (sometimes proteins) protects the bacterial cell and is often associated with pathogenic vacteria because it serves as a barrier against phagocytosis by white blood cells.

Outer membrane

This lipid bilayer is found in Gram negative bacteria and is the source of lipo-polysaccharides (LPS) in these bacteria. LPS is toxic and turns on the immune system of, but not in Gram positive bacteria.

Cell wall

This is the complex & semi-rigid outermost layer. It gives shape to the bacterial cell & protects it from external environment. It is composed of peptidoglycan (polysaccharides + protein); the cell wall maintains the overall shape of a bacterial cell.

Periplasmic Space

This cellular compartment is found only in those bacteria that have both an outer membrane and plasma membrane (e.g. Gram negative bacteria). In the space are enzymes and other proteins that help digest and move nutrients into the cell.

Plasma membrane

This is a lipid bilayer much like the cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane of other cells. There are numerous proteins moving within or upon this layer that are primarily responsible for transport of ions, nutrients and waste across the membrane.

Appendages:

Bacteria may gave the following appendages ( a tail or a limb attached to a major part):

Pili

Pili: These are hollow, hair like structures made of protein allow bacteria to attach to other cells. A specialized pilus, the sex pilus, allows the transfer from one bacterial cell to another. pili (sing; pilus) are also called fimbriae (sing; fimbria).

Flagella

The purpose of flagella (sing; flagellum) is motility. flagella are long appendages which rotate by means of a “motor” located just under the cytoplasmic membrane. Bacteria may have one, a few or many flagella in different positions on the cell.

Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified in many ways but three are important –

1. Classification on the basis of morphology (Shape & Size):

a) Coccus (Spherical) – round shaped. e.g. Streptococcus, Pneumococcus.

 
 b) Bacillus (Cylindrical) – Rod-Shaped. e.g. E. coli.

c) SPirillum (Spirocheate) – Spiral-shaped. e.g Treponema pallidum.

d) Vibrio – Comma-shaped. e.g. Vibrio cholerae

e) Filamentous – threadlike. e.g. Actinomyces israelli.

2. Classification on the basis of Gram staining:

Taxonomists divide bacteria into various subgroups including –

a. Gram-positive bacteria     &      b. gram-negative bacteria

Most species of bacteria can be grouped into two categories based on their response to a laboratory technique called Gram Staining. (These are terms for the way bacteria respond to a procedure called Gram-staining).

Gram-staining procedure:

Dr. Hans Christian Gram, a Danish Microbiologist, developed the Gram-stain technique in 1884. The technique involves stainig bacteria with a Purple Dye (Crystal Violet), & Iodine, & Rinesd with Alcohol. Then Re-stained with a Pink Dye (Safranin). Depending on Structure of their Cell Walls, the Bacteria absorb either the Purple. Gram-Negative Bacteria will appear PINK from the pink dye.

Gram-positive bacteria

Have a thicker layer of Peptidoglycan in their cell walls, made of a Protein-Sugar complex that takes on the Purple color during Gram Staining.

Gram-negative bacteria

Have an extra layer of lipid on the out side of the cell wall & appear Pink color after Gram Staining.

Examples of Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative bacteria:

Organisms	Types of & or site of infection
A. Gram-Positive Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus	Pneumonia, Boils, post-operative bone/joints.
Streptococcus pneumoniae	Pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media, sinusitis, septicemia
Streptococcus pyogenes	pharyngitis, impetigo
Streptococcus viridans	Endocarditis
B. Gram-Negative Bacteria
Escherichia coli (E. coli)	Urinary tract, pyelonephritis, peritonitis
Haemophilus influenzae	Pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media.
Klebsiella pneumoniae	Pneumonia, wounds
Neisseria gonorrhoeae	Gonorrhea
Salmonella typhi	Typhoid fever
Vibrio cholerae	Cholera

3. Classification on the basis of Oxygen requirement:
a, Aerobes – can not survive without atmospheric oxygen.
b, Anaerobes – can survive without atmospheric oxygen.
c, Facultative – can survive with or without atmospheric oxygen.

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Posted in: bacteria,gram negative bacteria,gram positive bacteria,prokaryotic cell,structure of bacteria,what is gram stain

Mycology

Mycology – Science that deals with Fungi.

Fungi

Fungi are hererotrophic organism & generally multicellular & filamentous. Mostly they are Gram positive & non pathogenic. Only a few are pathogenic & can cause diseases in plants, man & animals.

Fungi comprise the moulds & yeast. Whereas moulds are filamentous & multicelular, yeasts are usually unicellular.

Characteristics of Fungi:

1, Nucleated

2, Spore bearing protistas

3, Lack of chlorophyll

4, Reproduce both sexually & asexually.

5, Somatic cell walls composed of polysaccharide.

6, Saprophytic

7, Wide spread disease producing

Classification of Fungi:

1, Moulds (Dermatophytes)

2, Yeast (Cryptococcus neoformans)

3, Yeast like fungi (Candida albicans)

4, Dimorphic fungi (Blastomyces)

Important fungal diseases:

Candidiasis (Candida albicans):

They are non-capsulated cyst. They reside normally in the oral cavity, intestine & vagina. They are also present in the skin.

Dermatophyte infection:

It is caused by moulds or filamentous fungi. At different parts of the body it is caused by different species. Diseases are named according to the site of localization.

a, Tinea unguium- Infection of the nail.

b, Tinea corporis- Infection of the skin anywhere of the body.

c, Tinea corporis- Infection of the scalp.

d, Tinea cruris- Infection of the groin (the depressed part of the body between the belly & the thigh)

Special Feature: Antibiotics (the first of the wonder drugs, Penicillin) was isolated from the fungus Penicillium notatum.

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Posted in: characteristics of fungi,fungi,fungi classification,types of fungi,what are fungi

DNA and RNA Virus

Virology – Science that deals with Virus.

Virus

Viruses are unique group of living agents extremely small in size, usually beyond the resolution of light microscope, posses’ higher state of parasitism & may be responsible for a wide range of infections.

They do not have nucleus but they have nuclear material like DNA & RNA. These are nucleic acids. These RNA & DNA are covered by capsid. Other than nucleic acids viruses also contain protein, fat & carbohydrate.

Types of Virus

DNA virus:

1, Pox Virus

2, Herpes virus

3, Adeno virus

RNA virus:

1, Parmayxo virus

2, Picoma virus

3, Rhabdo virus

4, Retro virus

5, Human lmmune

Deficiency virus (HIV)

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Posted in: dna virus,rna virus,types of virus,virus,what is a virus

Cefixime Injection

Trade name:  loxime injection

GENERIC NAME: Cefixime BP

THERAPEUTIC CLASS: Antibacterial (3^rd generation Cephalosporin)

DESCRIPTION: Cefixime BP is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic. Like other   third-generation cephalosporins, it has broad spectrum activity against Gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

1^st generation cephalosporins: First generation cephalosporins are moderate spectrum agents, with a spectrum of activity that includes penecillinase-producing, methicillin-susceptible staphylococci and streptococci, though they are not the drugs of choice for such infactions. E.g. Cefadroxi (Sefadol), Cephradine (Dolocef), ceftezole etc.

2nd generation cephalosporins : The second  generation cephalosporins have grater Gram-negative spectrum while retaining some activity against Gram-posotive cocci. They are also more resistant to beta-lactamase. e.g. Cefaclor (Dolocef), Cefuroxime, Cefonicid etc.

3^rd generation cephalosporins: Third generation cephalosporins have a board spectrum of activity and further increased activity against Gram-negative organisms. e.g. Ceftriaxone (cefixon), Cefixime (Loxim), Cefpodoxime etc.

4th generation cephalosporins: Fourth generation cephalosporins are extended-spectrum agents with similar activity against Gram-positive organisms as first-generation cephalosporins & more active against Gram-negative organism e.g. Cefipime, Cefpirome etc.

FORMULATION

Loxim 200mg tablet: Each tablet contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP equivalent to Cefixime 200 mg.

Loxim 400mg tablet: Each tablet contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP equivalent to Cefixime 400 mg.

Loxim  100mg/5ml dry syrup (50ml): After reconstitution, each 5ml contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP epuivalent to cefixime 100mg.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Loxim belongs to a group of antibiotics called the cephalosporin. It kills bacteria by interfering with transpeptidase enzyme which is responsible for the synthesis of bacterial cell wall, peptidoglycan. The bacteria therefore break up and die

   

                          Transpeptidation

                                     |     Transpeptidation       <     -        Cefixon

                                        

                             Peptidoglycan

                                     |

                Stability & rigidity of bacterial cell wall

MICROBIOLOGY

Loxim is effective grampositive microoganisma such as   -   Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae etc.

Loxim is effective grampositive microoganisma such as   -   Heamophilus parainfluenzae, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella species, Shigella species etc.

CLINICAL INDICATIONS

Infections caused by pathogens sensitive to Cefixime, e.g.:

·        Upper respiratory tract infections: Pharyngitis, tonsillitis.

·        Lower respiratory tract infections: Pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis

·        Urinary tract infections

·        Ear, lung, throat infections

·        Uncomplicated gonorrhoea.

DOSAGE & ADMINISTRATION

Adults: The recommended dose of Loxim is 400mg daily. This may be given as a 400 mg tablet daily or as 200mg tablet every 12 hours.

For the treatment of uncomplicated cervical/urethral gonococcal infections, a single oral dose of 400mg is recommended.

Children: The recommended dose is 8 mg /kg/day of the suspension.

This may be administered as a single daily dose or may be given in two divided doses, as 4mg/kg every 12 hours 7 to14 days according to the severity of infection or for children of  age:

1/2-1 year                          : 3.75 ml or mg

1-4year                              : 5 ml or 100mg

5-10year                            : 10 ml or 200mg

11-12year                          : 15 ml or 300mg

Above12year                     : Adult dose

SIDE EFFECTS

·        Upset stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, mild skin rash, itching

·        Headache, hives

·        Difficulty breathing or swallowing

·        Wheezing

·        Vaginal infection etc.

DRUG INTERACTIONS

Oral contraceptive: Cephalosporins such as cefixime may reduce the effectiveness of the combined oral contraceptive pill.

Probenecid: The removal of cefixime from the body may be slowed if given with probenecid.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Loxim is contraindicated in patients with know allergy to the cephalosporin class of antibiotics.

BRAND INFORMATION

Preparation	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/unit
Loxim 200mg tablet	1*10	250	25
Loxim 400mg tablet	1*6	270	45
Loxim 100mg/5ml dry syrup	50ml	190	190

 

PRODUCT POSTING

Shows higher success rate in respiratory tract infections.

•    Pharyngitis                      94%
•    Otitis media                    96%
•    Pneumonia                     100%
•    Bronchitis                        98%

Provides excellent therapy in gonococcal infection (caused by N. gonorrhoeae)

•    Eradication rate               98%

Ensures effect treatment success in UTI’s

•      Cure rate                          99%

Offers outstanding success rate in multidrug resistant fever in children.

• Clinical response            100%

TAARGET DOCTORS

• Medicine Specialists
• Urologists
• Gynecologists
• Pulmonologists
• ENT specialists
• GP’s
• DGP’s

COMPETITIVE PRICE

Loxim 200mg tablet
Competitor	Brand name	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/UNIT
Opsonin	Ceftid	6’S	270	45
Renata	Orcef	8’s	270	33.75
Popular	Zemicef	8’s	200	25
Techno Drugs	Loxim	12’s	300	25

Loxim 100mg/5ml dry syrup

Competitor	Brand name	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/UNIT
Opsonin	Ceftid	50ml	275	275
Silva	Supraxim	50ml	250	250
Orion	Truso	50ml	160	160
Techno Drugs	Loxim	50m	190	190

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